Sunday, January 26, 2020

Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate (ADP) Crystals Structure

Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate (ADP) Crystals Structure Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP) crystals are widely used as the second, third and fourth harmonic generator for Nd:YAG and Nd:YLF lasers. It belongs to the tetragonal system with the space group I-42d 1. These crystals are widely used for electro-optical applications such as Q-switching for Ti–sapphire and alexandrite lasers as well as for acousto optical applications2–4. Tris(thiourea)zinc(II) sulphate (ZTS) is a semi-organic nonlinear optical (NLO) material which finds applications in the area of laser technology, optical communication, data storage technology and optical computing because it has high resistance to laser induced damage, high nonlinearity, wide transparency, low angular sensitivity and good mechanical hardness compared to many organic NLO crystals5-8. It belongs to the orthorhombic system with noncentrosymmetric space group Pca21 and point group mm2. Growth, spectral, optical and thermal studies of rare earth neodymium(III) doped ZTS9, cerium(III) doped ZTS10,11 have been reported. We have also investigated the influence of Ce(III)- doping12 effects of ADP crystals. In the present investigation, the effect of La(III)-doping on ADP and ZTS crystals has been studied using FT-IR, XRD, SEM, EDS, UV–vis, thermal and Kurtz powder SHG measurements. ADP (E. Merck) was purified by repeated recrystallization. ZTS was synthesized as reported earlier13. To avoid decomposition, low temperature ( ZnSO4 ·7H2O + 3(CS(NH2)2) à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ® Zn(CS(NH2)2)3SO4 After successive recrystallization processes, crystals were grown by slow evaporation solution growth technique (pH = 6.2). Doping of lanthanum (5 mol %) in the form of lanthanum(III)- chloride (Aldrich) was used as such in the aqueous growth medium. The crystallization took place within 10–15 days and the high quality transparent crystals were harvested from the aqueous growth medium. Best quality and highly transparent seed crystals are used in the preparation of bulk crystals. Photographs of the as-grown crystals are shown in Fig. 2.2.1. The FT-IR spectra of pure and doped crystals reveal small shifts in some of the characteristic vibrational frequencies (Table.2.3.1.1.) and it could be due to lattice strain as a result of La(III)- doping. The vibrational patterns of lanthanum doped ADP exhibit slight variations as compared with pure ADP. PO4 stretching and bending vibrations are observed at ~1100, ~910 cm-1 and ~453, ~546 cm-1 respectively. Symmetric stretching vibrations of NH4+ ion are observed in the range of ~1407 cm-1. Vibrational peak at ~1280 cm-1 corresponds to OH bending. Broad peaks observed at ~3234 cm-1, ~3120 cm-1 correspond to N–H ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ ·O stretching vibrations. A close observation of FT-IR spectra of pure ZTS and doped specimens also reveals that the doping results in slight shifts in some of the characteristic vibrational frequencies. It could be due to lattice strain developed as a result of doping. An absorption band in the region 2750–3400 cm-1 corresponds to the symmetric and asymmetric stretching frequencies of NH2 group of zinc(II) coordinated thiourea. The absorption band observed at ~1620 cm-1 in the spectra of pure and doped specimens corresponds to that of thiourea (~1625 cm-1)14 of about the same frequency and it can be assigned to NH2 bending vibration. The CN stretching frequencies of thiourea (1122 and 1502 cm-1) shifted to higher frequencies for pure and La(III)- doped ZTS crystals (~1128 and ~1500 cm-1). The C-S is stretching frequencies (1398 and 712 cm-1)15 are shifted to lower frequencies (~1394 and ~706 cm-1) for pure and doped samples. These observations suggest that metal coordinate with thiourea through The powder XRD patterns of La(III)-doped samples are compared with that of undoped one (Fig. 2.3.2.1). No new peaks or phases were observed by doping with inner transition metal lanthanum. However, a drastic reduction in intensity is observed as a result of doping. The most prominent peaks with maximum intensity of the XRD patterns of pure and doped specimens are quite different. The observations could be attributed to strains in the lattice. The cell parameters are determined from the single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis and the values of pure and doped crystals are given in the Table 2.3.2.1. The ionic radius of the dopant La(III) (117 pm) is very small compared with that of NH4+ (151 pm)16. Hence, it is reasonable to believe that the dopant can enter into the ADP crystalline matrix occupying predominantly substitutional positions without causing much distortion. However, the valance of the dopant is different from the host and hence one cannot expect only the simple substitut ional occupancy leading to inhomogeneous strains in the crystal17. It is also appropriate to mention here that in the case of dopants having a dissimilar valance and size from the substituting element of the host lattice, due to expected strain, even small thermal/ mechanical fluctuations during the growth process lead to easy formation of structural defects18,19. It clearly shows that the crystal undergoes non-uniform strain in the lattice. The cell volume of the La(III)- doped ZTS crystals increased (Table. 2). It could be due to the small ionic radius of Zn2+ (88 pm) in comparison with that of La(III) (117 pm)17. This type of behavior (the unit cell volume of the doped materials not varying regularly with the ionic radius of the dopant) has been explained by the electron-doping effect counteracting the steric effect20. The concentration of absorbing species can be determined using the Kubelka-Munk equation21, The direct and indirect band gap energies obtained from the intercept of the resulting straight line with the energy axis at [F(R)hÃŽ ½]2 = 0 and [F(R)hÃŽ ½]1/2 = 0 are deduced as 5.35 eV and 5.50 eV respectively for ADP:La and 5.37 eV 5.70 eV for ZTS:La (Fig. 2.3.3.1). The effect of the influence of dopant on the surface morphology of ADP crystal faces reveals structure defect centers as seen in SEM images (Fig.2.3.4.1). A plate like morphology with a layered structure is exhibited. The incorporation of lanthanum in the ADP crystal matrix results in cluster of scatter centers and voids than those of the undoped specimen. The flower like morphology is observed in ZTS doped specimens. Pure ZTS contains small defect centers in the plate surface and incorporation of La(III) increases the surface roughness (Fig.2.3.4.1(b)). The incorporation of La(III) into the crystalline matrix was confirmed by EDS performed on ADP and ZTS (Fig.2.3.5.1). It appears that the accommodating capability of the host crystal is limited and only a small quantity is incorporated into the ADP and ZTS crystalline matrix. EDS reveals that the accommodating capability of ZTS is much better than ADP as shown in Fig.2.3.5.1(b). The amount of doping in ADP:La and ZTS:La specimens are estimated using AAS and the foreign metal ion entering into the ADP/ZTS crystal matrix is much smaller but significant. Further, the final dopant concentration within the host lattice is not proportional to the prevailing concentration of dopant in the solution at the time of the crystallization process, since the host crystal can accommodate the dopant only to a limited extent. The AAS data reveal that the La(III) ion concentration in ADP and ZTS crystalline matrix are 7.5 ppm and 11.3 ppm respectively. High incorporation of the dopant takes place in the case of lanthanide doping in ZTS compared to ADP. TG/DTA thermogram reveals the purity of the material. The thermogram curve shows a gradual mass loss and residual mass obtained at 1000 ËÅ ¡C is only 10% Fig.2.3.6.1 (a) An endothermic peak is obtained in the DTA analysis for ADP:La at a higher temperature (200ËÅ ¡C) than the pure ADP crystals (191 ËÅ ¡C). The melting point of the material was confirmed by using Sigma instruments melting point apparatus (200ËÅ ¡C). The investigation shows that there is no physically absorbed water in molecular structure of crystals grown from the solution. The simultaneous TG-DTA curves in nitrogen for ZTS and ZTS:La systems at a heating rate of 20 ËÅ ¡C/min are given in the Fig.2.3.6.1(b). The absence of water of crystallization in the molecular structure is indicated by the absence of weight loss around 100 ËÅ ¡C. The melting point of pure ZTS is 231ËÅ ¡ C. A good thermal stability of ZTS:La is observed up to ~235 ËÅ ¡C and the thermal behavior is not very much altered in the presence of the dopant. The sharp endothermic peak at 235 ËÅ ¡C is may be due to melting point. TG curves show a gradual mass loss and residual mass obtained at 1000 ËÅ ¡C is ~20 %. The sharpness of the peak shows the good degree of crystallinity of the material. No decomposition up to the melting point ensures the stability of the material for application in lasers, where the crystals are required to withstand high temperatures. In order to confirm the influence of doping on the nonlinear optical properties (NLO) of the as-grown crystals, these were subjected to SHG test. The SHG efficiency of the materials was performed by Kurtz powder SHG method22. Input radiation used is 2.5 mV/pulse. The output SHG intensities of La(III) doped ADP and ZTS specimens give relative NLO efficiencies of the measured specimens. The doubling of frequency was confirmed by the green color of the output radiation whose characteristic wavelength is 532 nm and it indicates that the doped material exhibits second order NLO effect. The efficient SHG demands specific molecular alignment of the crystal to be achieved facilitating nonlinearity in the presences of a dopant. Incorporation of La(III) into ADP and ZTS crystalline matrix also enhances the SHG efficiency (Table.2.3.7.1) and hence La(III) is a useful dopant. The efficient SHG demands specific molecular alignment of the crystal facilitating nonlinearity in the presence of dopant or it may be due to the improvement in the crystalline perfection of ADP/ZTS crystals by low level La(III)- doping. The effect of various dopants on the SHG efficiencies of ADP/ZTS has been listed in Table.2.3.7.2. The comparative SHG oscilloscope traces of the powder samples ADP:La (blue) and ZTS:La (red) are displayed in Fig. 2.3.7.1. The influence of La(III) doping on the ADP and ZTS crystal has been systematically studied. The reduction in the intensities observed in the powder XRD patterns and slight shifts in vibrational frequencies in FT-IR indicate minor structural variations in the doped materials. Morphological changes in the doped specimen are observed in the SEM micrographs. The studies indicate that the crystal undergoes lattice stress as a result of doping. Energy dispersive X-ray spectrum reveals the incorporation of La(III)- into the crystalline matrix of ADP/ZTS crystals. AAS studies also confirm the above observations. It is clear that the incorporation of La(III)- is comparatively high in the case of ZTS. The thermal analysis reveals the purity of the material. Enhancement in SHG efficiency is observed in ADP/ZTS as a result of La(III)- doping became of facile charge transfer.

Saturday, January 18, 2020

Cultural Diversity and China Essay

Cultural diversity is a substantial part of the business assembly in the world today. The ability to interact with people from the western world to the eastern world has been made easily accessible through the use of technology. The means by which we communicate has made the transferring of information faster and less personal. However still to this day the most direct, effective and personal way to communicate with others is face-to-face communication (Varner, 2008). This process allows for the interaction of differing cultures; to process information, understand each other to collaborate on business opportunities. The mergence of cultures in business is a process, which needs to be thoughtfully entered upon. If an assumption were made that all people communicate by nature through processing information in the same way, there would be no effective communication, as this is not the case. People process communication on different levels and because of this we need to be made more culturally aware in how we interact. An action may be perceived very differently when presented to two people of differing cultures. To maximize business relations between cultures it is in the best interests to better understand the historic diversity of a culture. The history of a culture plays an integral roll in the traditions, actions and thought patterns of many people. When you understand the history of a culture, you can better understand the reasoning behind business practices and processes they use. Preparation is a key component to any success; cultural awareness can also be successfully accomplished with preparation. Chinese business etiquette is a high context environment and as far as appearance, behavior and how they communicate is very different then those of a low context culture. In China your professional appearance is very important. For the purposes of business, men usually wear very casual suits with neutral colors. The women in China usually do not show of much of their body, short skirts, high-heeled shoes and dresses should not be worn in the business setting. The Chinese will usually be offended if a woman shows off too much of her body. Jeans are not acceptable to business meetings either but they may be worn in casual settings. The Chinese behavior between business relations is very different from low context cultures. The Chinese people keep business relationships separate from friendships. When you are introduced to s Chinese businessperson it is important to avoid a lot of hand movements, this is believed to offend people and can found as obnoxious and disturbing. Eye contact or starring into person’s eyes is also not accepted and viewed as an impolite act when conversing. The most accepted way of greeting or making contact with a Chinese person is to make sure they give their hand first and shake hands firmly but not shaking too much. Bowing is also widely accepted to introduce oneself or shaking your head up and down is a regular greeting custom. Chinese people do not express themselves with hand movements in conversation, and they do not point, or talk with their hands. This behavior can observed as aggressive and not a socially acceptable behavior (Ricks, 2000). When meeting a Chinese businessperson it is important to keep introductions formal. The use of formal titles is the proper method of addressing someone. The Chinese believe in ranking and seniority and addressing someone informally without their professional title is seen as disrespectful. When address a person using his or her family name only, such as Mr. Chen or Ms. Hsu. The Chinese family name comes first and is usually one syllable. A one or a two-syllable given name follows a family name (Alder, 2001). For business purposes, it is traditionally acceptable to call a Chinese person by the surname, together with a title, such as â€Å"Director Wang† or â€Å"Chairman Li.† Avoid using someone’s given name unless you have known him or her for a long period of time. Formality is a sign of respect, and it is advisable to clarify how you will address someone very early in a relationship, generally during your first meeting. ( In China, it is assumed that the first person that enters the room is the head of the group. Westerners should observe this convention so as not to confuse the Chinese. Important guests are usually escorted to their seats. If the meeting room has a large central table, the principal guest is likely to be seated directly opposite the principal host. Time is also a very important aspect of business in China. Being on time is important and arriving late to a business meeting in China is a sign of disrespect. Therefore arranging appointments while conducting business to show the Chinese people you are professional and are respectful. Once the meeting is over it is proper form to allow the Chinese to leave the meeting first as this is a sign of respect for the other person. When exchanging business cards, hold out your card using both hands with the writing facing the recipient. Cards should always be exchanged individually (one-on-one). The action of tossing or dealing your business card across the table is considered extremely rude. To prevent an awkward situation it is recommended receive a business card with both hands and scan it immediately for vital information. It is demeaning to put someone’s card directly into your pocket without looking at it first. (Alder, 2001). A person should never write on a business card or directly put it in your wallet or pocket. It is an essential item in China custom to carry a small business card case to maintain business contacts. These differences mentioned can be observed as regular business practices in China. It is recommended that following proper form of etiquette in business to be successful when interacting with people from diverse cultures. One of the most important aspects of becoming culturally aware is to remember the history behind why a culture operates in particular manner. The high context culture of China is an extremely proud group of people. They place a high value on honor, morals, seniority and respect. The foundation of the operations of business is stemmed from these historic values. Having a foundation of historic education of a culture will help in the transition from one culture to the next. It is known that a large percentage of communication is transferred through the passing of verbal and non-verbal factors, the interpretation of these cues can play a factor in how varying cultures process these cues. (Varner, 2008). To adapt seamlessly to a culture would be best completed by gaining a sense of cultural awareness of others beliefs and customs. Preparation, knowledge and understanding of others practices will bring forth a better chance of being respected in China. The importance of cultural intelligence plays an integral roll of the success of doing business in China. Being aware of the forms and cultural differences through being open to difference will allow for successful communication between opposite cultures. References Alder, Nancy J. International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior. Fourth Edition, South-Western College Publishing 2001. Ricks, David A. Blunders in International Business, Blackwell Publishers; 3rd edition, January 2000.

Friday, January 10, 2020

Moral Difficulties Involved in War Reporting

Moral Difficulties Involved in War Reporting Contents Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. page 3 Historical perspective on the evolution of journalistic ethics†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. page 4 Deontology and Utilitarianism†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦page 5 Ethical Dilemma: Should reporters ever leak and/or publish classified information in a time of war? Arguments in favour†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ page 5 Ethical dilemma: Should reporters ever leak and/or publish classified information in a time of war? Arguments opposed†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦page 6 Applying principles of Deontology and Utilitarianism to the ethical dilemma†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦page 8 Conclusion†¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦page 10 Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ page 11 Introduction Journalists covering wars and conflicts are faced with numerous ethical dilemmas regarding professional codes of conduct, laws regulating national security and personal commitments to ideals such as the public’s right to know, and acting as the fourth estate (with the first three estates being the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government). Of the ethical theories we studied in the Communication Ethics course, I chose to compare and contrast Deontology and Utilitarianism, describe how they apply to a specific moral difficulty, and detail what conclusions can e drawn. For brevity sake, I have left out such theories as Justice and Fairness, Care Ethics, Virtue Ethics, and Moral Intuition as described by Jordin and Beaken (2009). I have also left out numerou s other dilemmas, such as the role advocacy or bias plays in the journalism profession as it relates to war and conflict. Here are just a few of the contemporary moral difficulties that could be examined: 1. Should reporters use neutral labels to describe terrorists? When is a terrorist a terrorist? 2. When can wartime photos and video incite violence? What are the journalist's responsibilities? 3. Should reporters ever leak and/or publish classified information in a time of war? 4. Can (and should) news media be used for war propaganda or censorship? 5. What would public support have been like for WWI, WWII or Korea if there had been unlimited and unregulated scrutiny as there is today with broadcast and digital media? The conflict I am specifically examining, and the moral difficulties it presents, involves the current conflict in Iraq. To thoroughly examine one dilemma within this paper’s space limitation, I have chosen number three: should reporters ever leak and/or publish classified information in time of war? It is in this area that, while researching the above moral difficulties, I found a significant variation in attitude from war to war. Historical perspective on the evolution of journalistic ethics I found it is useful to place this examination within the historical context and journalistic attitudes of just a few of many past conflicts reaching as far back as the American Revolutionary War period. Ben Franklin was one of America’s earliest and most influential journalists (Burns 2006). Burns says (p. 91), â€Å". . . he was as ethical a journalist as America produced in the eighteenth century. Yet, he deceived on occasion, but only because he thought it was a better way to tell a story, and only because he believed his readers were sophisticated enough to know the ruse and understand that it served a deeper purpose. † Franklin’s newspaper, magazine, and others he inspired covered political and foreign news and wars. War reporting of the French and Indian War of 1754 to 1763, which began in Europe as the Seven Years’ War, provided exciting reading to colonists. Reports were common of troop movements, battles and scalpings. Advocacy journalism was in full flourish, and readers were encouraged (Burns 2006, p. 121) â€Å". . . o resist their French and Indian attackers. † As taxes were increased in the colonies, newspapers began to encourage disobedience and a boycott of British goods. Franklin summarized the state of ethical journalism of the American Revolutionary War when he wrote that â€Å". . . the press not only can ‘strike while the ir on is hot,’ but it can ‘heat’ it by continually striking. † Richards (2005) states the prevalent newspaper partisanship of 17th and 18th century began changing in the 19th century to a more neutral position. This was due to the increasing dependence on advertising revenue, and the need to appeal to the broadest market possible. He also identifies news coverage of the Spanish-American War and the circulation wars between Hearst and Pulitzer as a low point in American journalism, and providing impetus to a call for more objectivity and defined standards. That came in 1910 when the first code of ethics was created by the Kansas Editorial Association and in 1923 by the American Society of Newspaper Editors. Covered in these and subsequent books and codes were such ethical topics as reporting on national security, fairness and accuracy. The Hutchins Commission in 1947 (Richards 2005, p. 8) â€Å". . . ntroduced two key notions – the ‘public good’ and the ‘greater responsibilities’ of the press. † He adds, â€Å"According to this theory, the responsibilities of the press . . . were to be emphasised over its freedoms, and the press was to be considered subject to moral and ethical restrictions. † During the second half of the 20th century there was considerable critic ism of this social responsibility theory. For instance, Richards queries to whom are the journalists responsible, what should the media be free to do, and why are they watching the government rather than the governed? Also, how does the journalist determine the public good and of which of many potential publics are we speaking? To summarize, there have been times throughout journalistic history when deception and taking sides was acceptable, but objectivity and responsibility were largely considered to be professional standards as we entered the 21st century. Deontology and Utilitarianism Of the many methods for applying ethical theories to war reporting, I narrowed the choice down to Deontology and Utilitarianism as referenced in the introduction. Deontology involves applying a universal set of principles (Jordin 2009, p. 15) â€Å". . . which makes the duty or the obligations we owe other human beings the fundamental principle of ethics. † Doing our duty is not based on a particular set of circumstances. Since acts are judged only by their consequences, the means justify the ends. Utilitarianism is defined by the consequences of actions, not the act’s moral or intrinsic value. Jordin (2009, p. 17) states, â€Å"Where deontological theories thus talk more in terms about what is right, consequentialist theories are more concerned with the good. Moral worth is determined by its ability to produce the most amount of good for the greatest number. Here, the ends justify the means. How can these two standards help answer our ethical dilemma? We can answer this question by examining a few cases from the current Iraq conflict and others. Ethical Dilemma: Should reporters ever leak and/or publish classified information i n a time of war? Arguments in favour: Former Pentagon aid Daniel Ellsberg leaked a highly classified study, subsequently called The Pentagon Papers, claiming the U. S. government deceived American citizens about the country’s involvement with Vietnam. Mitchell (2008) refers to Ellsberg as establishing the precedent for when the public’s right to know outweighs claims of national security and secrecy. Ellsberg argued that the ends justify the means since journalists sometimes do not question government war statements and do not delve deep enough. In a U. S. Supreme Court ruling on Ellsberg’s case, Justice Hugo Black wrote (Bauder 2009, p. 110), â€Å"The government’s power to censor the press was abolished so that the press would remain forever free to censure the government. The press was protected so that it could bare the secrets of the government and inform the people. Alterman (2003) concurs, maintaining that humans are flawed and abuse authority if they believe no one is watching. He speaks not only of politicians and policy makers, but military leaders as well. Alterman concluded it is the journalist’s role to hold political and military leaders accountable. Dean Baquet and Bill Keller (Bauder 20 09, p. 111) say â€Å"Our job, especially in times like these, is to bring our readers information that will enable them to judge how well their elected leaders are fighting on their behalf, and at what price. † They add that the White House never intended for the public to know classified secrets about faulty intelligence that led to the current war in Iraq, about prisoner abuse, alleged torture, or about electronic eavesdropping without specific warrants. They claim Americans have a right to know how the war is being waged. Others maintain that denying the public’s right to know amounts to censorship, and sometimes this censorship is not used to protect troops and prevent operational information from helping the enemy (Williams 2009), but is used to promote support for the war effort and sanitize its brutality and human cost. Williams cites as an example that the often promoted â€Å"smart† weapons in the Iraqi Gulf War, which supposedly reduced civilian casualties, comprised only seven per cent of the bombs used. â€Å"The rationale for this policy was that the public will no longer support any war involving a large number of civilian casualties. † (Williams 2009, p. 159). He added, â€Å"When the flow of information in a democratic society is controlled by the authorities and when military considerations take precedence over all other considerations then democracy itself is threatened. (Williams 2009, p. 167). To summarize, some believe it is ethical to expose government wrongdoing and deception because the public has a right to know how its government behaves behind closed doors and in foreign conflicts. Ethical dilemma: Should reporters ever leak and/or publish classified information in a time of war? Arguments opposed: At the beginning of WWII editor Tom Hopkinson withheld the truth fr om his British readers regarding the military disaster at Dunkirk, believing (Williams 2009, p. 154) â€Å". . . he truth would demoralise people and make them less able to resist an invasion. † Williams goes on to explain that similar restraint in revealing brutal photographs during the Korean War was so they would not â€Å"give aid and comfort to the enemy. † Williams (2009, p. 156) explained the distinction as to when it might be acceptable to withhold classified and potentially damaging information to a war effort: â€Å"The Second World War was a matter of national survival. There was a direct threat to Britain’s way of life. Defeat would have resulted in subjugation. The Korean War, on the other hand, at least as far as the British public was concerned, was in essence a police action happening on the other side of the world. There was no national emergency. There was no direct threat to national life. It is only when the very survival of a society is threatened that the truth can be interfered with. † During the early stages of the first Gulf War in Iraq, detailed classified information regarding the extent and effectiveness of bombing raids was withheld and restrictions placed on a reporter’s ability to interview pilots and troops (Hatchen 2000). Interviews conducted by pool reporters were subject to censorship. The U. S. Pentagon had decided there was a high priority assigned to the dismantling of the communications and military command structure in Iraq. It was vitally important that the enemy could not anticipate coalition force intentions, targets, troop strength or movements. U. S. Defence Secretary Donald Rumsfeld said that making classified information available to people who are not cleared for it makes finding and dealing with the responsible terrorists much more difficult. Rumsfeld added (Tapper 2001) that â€Å". . . the inevitable effect is that the lives of men and women in uniform are put at risk. † President Bush concurred (Berkowitz 2003), stating â€Å"Our nation's progress depends on the free flow of information. Nevertheless, throughout our history, the national defence has required that certain information be maintained in confidence in order to protect our citizens, our democratic institutions, our homeland security, and our interactions with foreign nations. † James B. Bruce (2007) argues that nothing is more important than national security. He believes leaks forewarn and forearm the enemy and allows them to develop countermeasures, thus placing national welfare and our citizens at home and abroad at risk. He adds in an article published on www. cia. gov that, â€Å"The US press is an open vault of classified information on US intelligence collection sources and methods. This has been true for years. But the problem is worse now than ever before, given the scope and seriousness of leaks coupled with the power of electronic dissemination and search engines. He states that press leaks allow the enemy to see how secret intelligence works, and how to defeat it. Schoenfeld (2006) rails against newspaper leaks that exposed the classified network of CIA prisons in Europe holding al-Qaeda captives, the disclosure of government surveillance of al-Qaeda suspects, and the monitoring of Al-Qaeda financial transactions. He adds the most serious leak was of a classified memo raising serious USA administration doubts about Iraqâ€℠¢s Prime Minister. He states, â€Å"At a moment when the United States faces the present danger of assault by Islamic terrorists and is struggling to protect itself from falling victim to a second September 11, a murmuration of overzealous, self-interested, and mistaken advocates is striving to shield the press’s freedom of movement at the expense of many if not all of the competing imperatives of a system based upon the rule of law. † To summarize, some believe the test for publishing any kind of information, whether classified are not, is as follows. Will publishing the information: 1. provide aid and comfort to the enemy? 2. threaten the safety of our troops and allies engaged in the conflict? 3. threaten our safety as a nation? Some believe if the answer is â€Å"yes† to any of the above, than the material should not be published or distributed. Applying principles of Deontology and Utilitarianism to the ethical dilemma Universalists, and in particular consequentialists (Jordin 2000), would argue that the greater good is served by releasing secrets during a time of war. Withholding secrets could threaten the very foundation of democracy, and the principles we are fighting to defend. If revealing a secret exposes inhumane treatment of prisoners or casts doubt on intelligence gathering which led to the current Iraqi war, then the ends justify the means. A Deontologist would say releasing secrets would destroy the right of a government to possess information that might prove harmful in other people’s hands. The duty to protect state secrets in a time of war is reflected in the â€Å"universal human right to life† as described by Jordin (2009, p. 6), and life, whether it be a citizen’s or the nation itself, might be endangered if secrets were revealed. The means (keeping classified information secret) justify the ends (national security and public safety). How then can a reporter decide when confronted with this ethical dilemma? One approach would be to answer the general questions from the URJC model (Jordin 2009, p. 29). URJC stan ds for Utilitarianism, rights and duties, and justice and care ethics. For the purpose of this discussion, I am employing only the Utilitarianism and rights and duties (Deontology) standards: . â€Å"Does the decision optimise the welfare and satisfaction of all the stakeholders? † No, it would satisfy stakeholders such as crusading journalists opposed to the war, freedom of speech and public right to know advocates, but not necessarily the government, military or intelligence personnel whose lives may be placed in danger, and not the stakeholder citizens who support the war. 2. â€Å"Does it respect the rights and duties of the individuals involved? † No, for the same reasons as stated above. 3. â€Å"Is it fair and consistent with the norms of justice? Yes, government leaks in Iraq and prior wars have rarely resulted in government prosecution or professional censure. 4. â€Å"Does it arise from and reflect an impulse to care? † Yes, acting as the fourth estat e and holding the government accountable and responsible for its actions is an altruistic goal. We can see from this exercise that the answers are evenly split: two â€Å"no† and two â€Å"yes. † A further approach might be to use the modified URJC model as developed by Velasquez et al and described in Jordin (2009, p. 29) by answering the following questions: . â€Å"Who will be affected by each possible course of action and what benefits and harms will be derived from each? † The publication of classified information in time of war could provide aid and comfort to the enemy and potentially endanger public officials, military and intelligence sources both at home and abroad. However, there are situations when governments may wish to cover up embarrassing or potentially illegal activities, and the only way to shed light on the situation is by publishing secret information. Therefore, each situation would need to be reviewed in a case-by-case analysis; weighing the potential for harm against the greatest good. 2. â€Å"Does the course of action respect everyone’s rights to choose freely how they will live their lives, to the truth, to privacy, not to be harmed or injured, to what has been promised or agreed? † No, revealing secrets during the time of war may result in harm and injury to its citizens and to the security of the government, even while promoting truth and democracy. 3. â€Å"Does the course of action treat everybody in the same way or does it show favouritism or discrimination? No, selectively choosing which laws to break and which secret data to reveal does not treat everyone the same way and can show favouritism to a particular point of view, course of action or even a political party. The only way not to discriminate would be to blanketly publish all available leaks or secret data a reporter comes across, or to publish non e at all. 4. â€Å"What kind of person do I aspire to be? Which course of action promotes the development of that character within myself and my community? † The decision is up to each reporter. Speaking from personal experience as a professional journalist I can answer that adherence to the principles of democracy, freedom of the press, and the public’s right to know are of highest importance. Yes, it may be acceptable in some circumstances to leak or publish classified material in a time of war. In reviewing the previous four questions there was one â€Å"maybe†, two â€Å"no† and one â€Å"yes† answers. Conclusion By answering the previous eight questions in the context of Deontology and Utilitarianism theories, it can be concluded that leaking and/or publishing classified information in a time of war is not acceptable. Therefore, it is possible to solve this specific moral difficulty concerning war reporting. Though it is possible to determine a course of action by applying these theories to such an ethical dilemma, the final result is not clear cut. The outcome was decided by a single â€Å"no† answer out of eight questions. Due to such a close margin, I believe these two basic theories can benefit from further modification and application of other ethical models to help find a solution to moral difficulties in war reporting. Bibliography ALTERMAN, Eric (2003). What liberal media? New York, Basic Books. BAUDER, Julia (2009). Media ethics. Michigan, Greenhaven Press. BERKOWITZ, Bill (2003). Escalating secrecy wars. WorkingForChange. com, 9 July. [online]. Last accessed 21 Dec. 2009 at: http://www. alternet. org/story/16369/ BRUCE, James (2007). The consequences of permissive neglect. www. cia. gov, May. [online]. Last accessed 20 Dec. 2009 at: https://www. cia. gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/v47i1a04p. htm BURNS, Eric (2006). Infamous scribblers. New York, Public Affairs. HATCHEN, William (2000). Reporting the Gulf War. In: Graber, Mark A. , Media Power in politics. Washington D. C. , CQ Press, pp. 304-312. JORDIN, Martin. Ethical Theories. In: Communication ethics, Revised (2009) by Beaken, Mike. Sheffield, Sheffield Hallam University, pp. 14-30. MITCHELL, Greg (2008). So wrong for so long. New York, Sterling Publishing Co. , Inc. RICHARDS, Ian (2005). Quagmires and quandaries: exploring journalism ethics. Australia, University of New South Wales Press Ltd. SCHOENFELD, Gabriel (2007). Why journalists are not above the law. Commentarymagazine. com, Feb. [online]. Last accessed 20 Dec. 2009 at: http://www. commentarymagazine. com/viewarticle. cfm/why-journalists-are-not-abo ve-the-law-10827 TAPPER, Jake (2001). Bush scolds Congress. Salon. com, 9 Oct. [online]. Last accessed 20 Dec. 2009 at: http://www. salon. com/politics/feature/2001/10/09/bush/index1. html WILLIAMS, Kevin. Something more important than truth: ethical issues in war reporting. In: Communication ethics readings. Sheffield, Sheffield Hallam University, pp. 154-171.

Thursday, January 2, 2020

Personal Statement On Emotional Intelligence - 857 Words

Because emotional intelligence is a developing field, there isn’t a lot of information about emotional intelligence that’s readily available. It certainly seems to be an important discipline and emotional intelligence is certainly a skill that I want to have and improve because I want to be able to manage my own emotions and the emotions of others. My conformed profile is ENTJ this means that in business and school I am willing to be social, intuitive, a strong thinker and a critical thinker who makes decisions based on merit. ISFP is the opposite of ENTJ. The MBTI foundation has many different results of what every four-letter code means. According to the MBTI foundation website (2016), ISFP Quiet, friendly, sensitive, and kind. Enjoy the present moment, what s going on around them. Like to have their own space and to work within their own time frame. Loyal and committed to their values and to people who are important to them. Dislike disagreements and conflicts, do not force their opinions or values on others. (The Myers Briggs Foundation - The 16 MBTI ® Types) The opposite profile of me is nice as well. I will post the results of my typology test below from humanmetrics.com Humanmetrics Jung Typology Testâ„ ¢ Results: Your Type: ENTJ Extravert(6%) iNtuitive(12%) Thinking(1%) Judging(12%) You have slight preference of Extraversion over Introversion (6%) You have slight preference of Intuition over Sensing (12%) You have marginal or no preference ofShow MoreRelatedPersonal Statement On Emotional Intelligence1100 Words   |  5 Pagesreflection I will discuss my skills built through the learning of Emotional Intelligence throughout the unit. I will be discussing Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence theory that we have learnt as well as other practical ways of testing Emotional Intelligence. 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